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Timeline of United States inventions and discoveries

Henry Ford, Thomas Alva Edison, and Harvey Samuel Firestone are known as the “fathers of modernity.”

As an industrialized nation, the United States of America is one of the world’s foremost countries of prolific inventors and technological prowess. The American people have contributed much to the fields of biotechnology, medicine, aviation and aerospace, military hardware, computer science, green energy, and space exploration.

On March 6, 1646, the first patent in North America was issued to Joseph Jenckes by the General Court of Massachusetts. [1] On April 10, 1790, President George Washington signed a bill into law establishing the modern patent and trademark system which continues to be used to this day. [2] As of February 10, 2009, the United States Patent and Trademark Office has granted 7,479,950 patents [3] relating to some of the most brilliant inventions of a lifetime— Nikola Tesla’s transmission of radio [4], Ransom Eli Olds’ assembly line [5], Willis Carrier’s air-conditioning [6], the Wright Brothers’ airplane [7], William Shockley’s transistor [8], John Blankenbaker’s personal computer [9], Vinton Cerf's and Robert Kahn’s Internet protocol/TCP [10], and Martin Cooper’s mobile phone [11].

This article serves as a timeline of inventions and discoveries within a historical context, beginning in the colonial period and progressing into the 21st century, which have been achieved by people who are either native-born or naturalized citizens of the United States.


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How to Buy A Rugged Laptop


Instructions

Difficulty: Moderate Step1
First a note about laptops and notebooks, and other portable computing devices. Throughout this guide we refer to laptops and notebooks. The portable computing niche includes a large array of form factors. Generally speaking, most people use “laptop” and “notebook” as interchangeable terms. That's OK, but in reality a notebook is smaller than a laptop. Also, as technologies merge, portable computers can now be used as phones, and cell phones and smartphones can also be used as portable computer platforms. The important thing to remember is that all mobile computing devices are becoming more durable and more rugged all the time. As consumer electronics get smaller they almost by default have to be designed to be more rugged. There are also numerous other names you will come across like minicomputers, UMPCs, ultra mobiles, handhelds, and PDAs.
Step2
The differences between "ruggedized," "semi-rugged" and "fully-rugged" are often confusing, interchangeable, and misleading. These descriptions can be likened to “good”, “better”, “best”, or other advertising orders of degree like “full strength”, “super strength”, and “super-duper strength”. The use of such terms can be very subtle in the consumer market, but can be very specific in the industrial and military markets. Only a few standards are generally accepted to rate most rugged portable computing devices, and it is safe to say that portable computers in the durable category are a better value and offer distinct advantages over most conventional laptops and notebooks.
Step3
Until recently most of the brands associated with the rugged niche were not exactly household names. Some of the top companies known for producing military style computers (Mil-Std 810F) include, Panasonic, Getac, and General Dynamics. Most people do not know that even Motorola is a big player in this specialty computer niche. Now other well-known consumer brands like HP, Dell, Asus, Lenovo, plus many others are also known for product lines that include ruggedized, semi-rugged, and fully-rugged portable computers. As an example, most people will have read about, or seen some advertising for Panasonic Toughbooks and the Dell Latitude ATG.
Step4
Here is a short checklist of why you may be a candidate for a rugged laptop. You will pay a premium for a rugged laptop over regular off-the-shelf consumer models, and you need to know some of the benefits. Much of this has to do with your working habits and working conditions. Two of the most important aspects of owning a rugged laptop are flexibility and mobility. Rugged laptops give you the ability to work in a wide variety of conditions and environments. If your work requires you to work in the outdoors, in inclement weather, or in other harsh conditions, then you probably will like the advantages of going rugged.
Step5
Following is a review of other common features that contribute to the characteristics of rugged laptops and other rugged devices in no particular order.
SHOCK RESISTANCE This is a measure of how much shock load a rugged laptop can withstand and still operate properly. This test is typically measured by the height and number of the drops that a rugged laptop can endure. The drop surface is usually defined as two-inch-thick plywood over a steel plate over concrete and a drop distance of 36 inches. Laptops are inspected after each drop and booted up for a function check performed after each drop.
WATER RESISTANCE Water and moisture is hazardous to many electrical components of any laptop. This specification measures the performance ability of a rugged laptop after being exposed to different amounts of water and moisture levels.
DUST RESISTANCE Air venting systems for cooling tend to collect dust and dirt. For this reason most rugged laptops are designed to dissipate heat without the use of fans. Materials in the casing are use as heat sinks to prevent dust and dirt from entering the inside of the case - CPU heat is released through the casing.
VIBRATION RESISTANCE Rugged laptops are often used in vehicles, and around other equipment. These workhorses need to stand up to continuous vibration. Constant vibration can cause keyboard damage and damage to internal components of regular office or home laptop computers.
TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE Rugged computers need to perform while exposed to extreme temperatures. From arctic condition to dessert conditions, some rugged laptop can operate in a temperature range between -32° to 60° C (-10° to 140° F). Usually an optional feature, rugged laptops can also be equipped with a hard drive heater for startup and operation in freezing temperatures. Diagnostic software can even monitor internal conditions to prevent outages due to extremes of heat and cold.
Step6
This section could be labeled "Extra Things to Look for in a Rugged Laptop", as the next four items are not always standard features. However, they are important and will make the use and operation of your portable computer more enjoyable and give you more check marks in the usability column. Oddly enough, these features are not widely available as standard features, and usually are available only at a premium. They are: Transflective LCD Screen, Precision O-Ring Construction, EMI-RFI Cable Shielding, and a Superconductor Heat Pipe System. The reason these features are not standard is because they drive up the costs of materials and manufacturing for an off-the shelf products.